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The Handbook of Linguistics -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- Preface to the Second Edition -- Preface to the First Edition -- List of Abbreviations -- Part I: Starting Points -- 1: Origins of Language -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Evidence from Anthropology and Archeology -- 3 Genetic Evidence -- 4 Primatological Evidence -- 4.1 Vocal Call Systems -- 4.2 Cognitive Abilities -- 4.3 Sign Language Experiments -- 5 Neurobiological Evidence -- 6 Linguistic Evidence -- 6.1 Protolanguage and "True" Language -- 6.2 Actual Grammar Versus Conceivable Grammars -- 7 Conclusion -- 2: Languages of the World -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Languages of Europe and Northern Asia -- 2.1 Indo-European Languages -- 2.2 Uralic Languages -- 2.3 Altaic Families -- 2.4 Chukotko-Kamchatkan Languages -- 2.5 Caucasian Families -- 2.6 Other Languages of Europe and Northern Eurasia -- 2.7 Proposals for Larger Groupings -- 3 Languages of Southern, Eastern, and Southeastern Asiaand Oceania -- 3.1 Dravidian Languages -- 3.2 Austro-Asiatic Languages -- 3.3 Sino-Tibetan -- 3.4 Daic Languages -- 3.5 Hmong-Mien (Miao-Yao) Languages -- 3.6 Austronesian Languages -- 3.7 Papuan Families -- 3.8 Australian Families -- 3.9 Other Languages of Southern, Eastern, and Southeastern Asia -- 3.10 Proposals for Larger Groupings -- 4 Languages of Africa and Southwestern Asia -- 4.1 Afroasiatic Languages -- 4.2 Niger-Congo Languages -- 4.3 Nilo-Saharan Families -- 4.4 Khoisan Families -- 4.5 Proposals for Larger Groupings -- 5 Languages of the Americas -- 5.1 Languages of North America -- 5.2 Languages of Meso-America -- 5.3 Languages of South America -- 5.4 Proposals for Larger Groupings -- 6 Pidgin and Creole Languages -- 7 Deaf Sign Languages -- 3: Typology and Universals -- 1 Introduction: The Typological and Generative Approaches to Language Universals. 2 How Many Languages Are Needed for a Typological Study? -- 3 How Does One Person Use Data from So Many Languages? -- 4 How Can One Compare Grammatical Structures from Many Different Languages? -- 5 The Nature of Language Universals -- 6 Explanations for Language Universals -- 4 :Field Linguistics: Gathering Language Data from Native Speakers -- 1 What Is "Field Linguistics"?* -- 2 How Is "Field" Data Gathered? -- 2.1 Basic Techniques of Field Linguistics -- 2.2 Getting Started with Field Work -- 3 What to Ask a Speaker, and What a Speaker Says -- 3.1 Working in the Field -- 4 Analyzing the Data, and What to Do with It -- 4.1 Basic Analysis -- 4.2 Writing the Language -- 4.3 Describing the Language -- 5 Contributions of Field Linguistics to Linguistic Theory and Other Scholarly Work -- 6 The Highest Contribution -- 5: Writing Systems* -- 1 The Diversity of Writing Systems -- 1.1 Syllabaries -- 1.2 Alphabets -- 1.3 Abjads -- 1.4 Abugidas -- 1.5 Morphosyllabaries -- 1.6 Informed Inventions -- 2 The Unity of Writing Systems -- 2.1 Origin of Writing -- 2.2 Diffusion of Writing -- 2.3 External Characteristics -- 3 Writing and Language -- 4 The Study of Writing -- Part II: Theoretical Bases -- 6: The History of Linguistics: Approaches to Linguistics -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Grammatical Traditions -- 3 The Rise of Universal Grammar -- 4 The Rise of the Comparative Method -- 4.1 The Scythian Hypothesis and the Notion of Indo-European -- 4.2 Sir William Jones -- 4.3 The Neogrammarians -- 5 Philosophical-Psychological (-Typological-Evolutionary) Approaches -- 6 The Rise of Structuralism -- 6.1 Ferdinand De Saussure (1857-1913) -- 6.2 The Prague School and its Antecedents -- 6.3 Franz Boas (1858-1942) -- 6.4 Edward Sapir (1884-1939) -- 6.5 Leonard Bloomfield (1887-1949) -- 7 Noam Chomsky and Linguistic Theory Since 1957 -- 8 Typology -- 9 Conclusions. 7: Generative Grammar: Rule Systems for Describing Sentence Structure -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 "Grammar" -- 1.2 "Generative" -- 2 Tenets of Generative Grammar -- 2.1 Grammars Should be Descriptive, Not Prescriptive. -- 2.2 Grammars Should Characterize Competence, Not Performance. -- 2.3 Grammars Should be Fully Explicit. -- 2.4 Linguistic Analyses Should be Maximally General. -- 2.5 The Theory of Grammar Should Make Universal Claims. -- 2.6 Grammars Should be Psychologically Relevant. -- 3 Common Formal Elements -- 3.1 Context-Free Grammar -- 3.2 Transformational Grammar -- 3.3 Other Enhancements to CFG -- 4 Some Phenomena Studied by Generative Grammarians -- 4.1 Binding Principles -- 4.2 Filler-Gap Dependencies -- 4.3 Island Constraints -- 5 Varieties of Generative Grammar -- 5.1 Transformational Theories -- 5.2 Nontransformational Analyses -- 6 The Future of Generative Grammar -- 8: Functional Linguistics: Communicative Functions and Language Structure -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Communicative Functions of Language -- 3 A Brief Look at the Development of Linguistic Theory in the Twentieth Century -- 4 Functional Approaches -- 5 Formal vs. Functional Approaches to Language -- 6 Conclusion -- Part III: Core Fields -- 9: Linguistic Phonetics: The Sounds of Languages -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Linguistic Phonetics and General Phonetic Theory -- 3 The Scope of Linguistic Phonetics -- 4 The Coverage of a Linguistic Phonetic Theory -- 5 The Shape of a General Phonetic Theory -- 6 Organic and Phonetic Aspects of Speech -- 7 Articulatory, Acoustic, and Perceptual Levels of Description of Speech -- 8 Linear and Nonlinear Units of Speech Organization -- 8.1 The Relationship Between Phonetic Segments and Phonetic Features as Units of Speech Production -- 8.2 Phonetic and phonological features -- 8.3 The phonological syllable. 9 The Componential Organization of Speech Production -- 10 Speech Production Processes -- 10.1 Initiation and Direction of Airflow -- 10.2 Phonation Type -- 10.3 Articulation -- 10.4 Intersegmental Coordination -- 10.5 Temporal Organization of Speech -- 11 Conclusion -- 10: Phonology*: Sound Structure -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Inventories and Contrasts -- 2.1 Inventories -- 2.2 Contrast -- 3 Structure Above the Level of the Segment: Prosodic Organization -- 3.1 Syllable Structure -- 3.2 A Constraint-Based Account -- 4 Subsegmental Structure -- 4.1 Features and Segmenthood -- 4.2 Alternations -- 5 Phonology in a Broader Context -- 5.1 Phonology As a System -- 5.2 Emerging Trends and Research Questions -- 11: Morphology1 -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 The lexeme concept -- 1.2 Types of Word Formation: Inflection, Derivation, Compounding -- 1.3 Other Types of Realization: Clitics and Periphrases -- 2 The Morpheme Concept and Agglutinating Morphology -- 2.1 Item-and-Arrangement Morphology -- 2.2 Deviations from Agglutination -- 3 Morpheme Order -- 4 Rule Function Morphology -- 5 Paradigms and Principal Parts -- 6 Lexeme Structure and Lexical Relatedness -- 6.1 Derivational Morphology -- 6.2 Four Types of Lexical Relatedness -- 6.3 Mixed Categories -- 6.4 Complex Predicates -- 7 Conclusions -- 12: The Lexicon -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Words -- 2.1 Lexical Forms, Lexical Units, and Lexemes -- 2.2 Individuating Word Forms: Graphic and Phonetic Clues -- 2.3 Grammatical Properties of Words -- 2.4 Semantic Properties of Words -- 3 Lexical Semantics -- 3.1 Theoretical Approaches -- 4 How Many Meanings? Contextual Variability of Word Meaning -- 4.1 Ambiguity -- 4.2 Polysemy and Homonymy -- 5 Sense Relations -- 5.1 Paradigmatic Sense Relations -- 5.2 Syntagmatic Sense Relations -- 6 Meaning Extensions and Change -- 6.1 Established Readings and Nonce Readings. 6.2 Literal and Nonliteral Readings -- 6.3 Metaphor -- 6.4 Metonymy -- 6.5 Specialization and Generalization -- 6.6 Amelioration and Pejoration -- 7 Larger Groupings of Words -- 7.1 Word Fields -- 7.2 Word Families -- 7.3 Domain-Specific Vocabulary -- 7.4 Layers of Vocabulary -- 7.5 The Mental Lexicon -- 7.6 Vocabularies -- 8 Conclusion -- 13: Syntax -- 1 The Domain of Syntax -- 2 The Chomskyan Perspective -- 2.1 The Use of Formal Mathematical Tools -- 2.2 The Goal of Accuracy and Explicitness -- 2.3 The Goal of Simplicity and Generality -- 3 Lessons of Syntactic Research -- 3.1 The Vastness of Syntax -- 3.2 The Centrality of Constraints -- 4 The Similarities and Differences Among Human Languages -- 4.1 The Syntax of Edo -- 4.2 The Syntax of Japanese -- 4.3 The Syntax of Mohawk -- 5 A Glance Ahead -- 14: Formal Semantics* -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Meanings and Denotations -- 3 Dynamic Semantics: Beyond Static Sentence Meanings -- 4 Meanings and Situations: Beyond Possible Worlds -- 5 Underspecified Representations: Beyond Compositionality -- 6 Conclusion -- 15: Historical Linguistics: Language Change Over Time -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Framing the Issues -- 3 Substance of Change: What Types Occur? How DoThey Spread? -- 4 Mechanisms of Change: How Is Change Manifested in Language? -- 5 Explanation of Change: Why Does It Happen? -- 6 Some Dramatic Discoveries and Important Methods -- 7 For the Future: What Remains to Be Done? -- 8 Conclusion -- Part IV: Languages and the Mind -- 16: Neurolinguistics* -- 1 Aphasiology -- 1.1 A Very Brief History of Aphasiology -- 1.2 Modern Aphasiology -- 1.3 Disturbances of Word Meanings -- 1.4 Disorders of Sentence Comprehension -- 1.5 Comments on Modern Aphasiology -- 2 Language and the Brain -- 2.1 The Overall Organization of the Brain for Language -- 2.2 The Organization of the Perisylvian Association Cortex for Language. 2.3 Lexical Access and Word Meaning.